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Podcast Transcript
For over 600 years, the empire that dominated the region of Southeast Asia was the Khmer Empire.
Built out of a collection of kingdoms, the Khmer Empire dominated its corner of Asia. It was an advanced civilization known for its massive building projects and its system of waterworks.
Even though the empire eventually fell, as all empires do, its legacy can still be seen in the religious and cultural institutions in the region today.
Learn more about the Khmer Empire, its rise, and its fall on this episode of Everything Everywhere Daily.
The Khmer Empire was one of the most powerful and influential empires to have existed in Southeast Asia.
At its peak, its territory included all of modern Cambodia, which was the heart of the empire, southern Vietnam around the Mekong Delta and the city of Saigon, most of Laos, much of northern Thailand, and some of Myanmar.
During its existence it was larger than the Byzantine Empire was at the time, which existed concurrently with it.
As we’ll see, the Khmer Empire is one of the ancient empires that has had a lasting legacy into the modern day, both in terms of its construction projects and its influence on cultures.
Before the founding of the Khmer Empire, the region was a collection of smaller kingdoms that often warred with each other.
The central figure in the creation of the empire was Jayavarman II. Little is known about his early life other than that he was a prince in the kingdom of Chenla, which was located in what is today Cambodia and southern Vietnam. It was centered on the Mekong River, which included Tonle Sap, the very wide part of the river near modern-day Siem Reap, as well as the Mekong Delta.
It is believed that he may have grown up and been educated on the island of Java. In the late 8th century, this was the seat of the Shailendra dynasty, which ruled the island.
It isn’t known if he was exiled to Java or if he might have been a royal hostage.
What we do know is that around 790, Jayavarman returned to the mainland of Southeast Asia, where various competing political entities existed, and he began consolidating his power.
In 802, he declared himself the Chakravartin, which in Sanskrit means universal ruler, and devaraja, which means god ruler. In doing so, he de facto declared the independence of the Khmer people from the control of Java.
Jayavarman II expanded his empire for the next thirty years, although it did not reach its ultimate size under his rule.
Another important thing to note is that Southeast Asia and Indonesia were predominantly Hindu at this time. The Frech would later dub this part of Southeast Asia Indo-China to reflect the influences of both India and China on the region.
Which of the major neighboring cultures was dominant depended on geography and time, as influence would often ebb and flow. At this period, almost 1200 years ago, the dominant influence in the region came from the west and India.
In addition to Hinduism, the official and religious language in which records were kept was Sanskrit.
Jayavarman II died in 835. In addition to uniting many of the Khmer kingdoms, he established a new capital city, Hariharalaya, which is close to modern Angkor.
Indravarman I, reigned from 877 to 889. His reign is noteworthy for expanding the empire without engaging in war. He is best known for starting the monumental construction projects which would define the Khmer Empire.
Indravarman I initiated large-scale irrigation projects, most notably the construction of the Indratataka reservoir, which greatly enhanced agricultural productivity. He also commissioned the construction of Preah Ko and Bakong, some of the earliest grand temples in the Angkor region.
Bakong is believed to be based on the great temple of Borobudur on the island of Java.
In 889, his son, Yasovarman I, assumed the throne. His most significant act as ruler was establishing a new capital. Known as Yasodharapura in Sanskrit, which means “Glory-bearing city,” it is known as Angkor in Khmer.
Angkor was to be the capital of the Khmer Empire for the rest of its existence.
Yasovarman I also continued the work of his predecessors, building more monumental temples and the East Baray, a massive reservoir that supported agriculture and population growth.
For several centuries, the Khmer Empire’s rulers continued to erect monuments and temples and expand its borders. In the late 10th century, after the death of Jayavarman V, the empire suffered from instability when three different kings claimed leadership of the empire.
This period lasted for almost a decade until 1006, when Suryavarman I came to power.
Suryavarman ended the internal conflict, consolidated power, and began growing the empire again. The empire expanded into what is today modern Laos and Thailand. He also introduced administrative reforms that helped manage the empire’s growing complexity.
One of the most famous kings of the Khmer Empire was Suryavarman II, who came to power in 1113 and ruled during the empire’s zenith. He is credited with the construction of the monumental temple complex Angkor Wat, originally dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu. Angkor Wat is an architectural masterpiece and one of the largest religious monuments in the world.
I previously did an episode on Angkor Wat, but I’ll sum up by saying that Angkor Wat is the heart of the larger Angkor complex.
Angkor Wat is the largest religious monument in the world, covering over 162 hectares, as recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records. Its design symbolizes Hindu cosmology, with its central tower representing Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods, surrounded by a series of galleries and moats. The temple is renowned for its intricate bas-reliefs and stunning architectural symmetry.
The Khmer Empire reached its greatest extent under the rule of Suryavarman II.
In 1177, the Khmer Empire faced one of its greatest threats. It was invaded by the Cham people from the region known as Champa, which is today central Vietnam. Part of this was a huge naval battle that took place on Tonle Sap, the widening of the Mekong River whose water level can vary dramatically throughout the year.
They sacked Angkor and occupied it for several years.
The occupation was ended by the rise of Jayavarman VII, who is considered the greatest king of the Khmer Empire.
He expelled the Cham and fought them for twenty-two years to keep them out and consolidate control of the empire.
Perhaps most importantly, Jayavarman VII changed the state religion of the Khmer Empire from Hinduism to Mahayana Buddhism. He also declared himself a Bodhisattva king, dedicated to the well-being of his people.
This was a very profound cultural shift. In most civilizations, a change in something as profound as religion often results in extreme upheaval and probably war. That did not happen in the Khmer Empire.
He embarked on a massive building campaign. Bayon and Ta Prohm, two of the largest temples in Angkor complex outside of Angkor Wat, and many other temples were constructed, marking the height of Khmer architectural achievements. These temples were built as Buddhist temples, not Hindu temples.
He created an extensive network of roads between all of the towns in the empire and built over 100 hospitals.
The shift from the warrior-like Hindu Devaraja king to a more compassionate and benevolent Buddhist Bodhisattva king reflected a transformation in how power was justified. The king went from being seen n as a divine figure to a protector of his people, tasked with leading them toward spiritual well-being.
The death of Jayavarman VII in 1218 ended the Golden Age period of the Khmer Empire.
After Jayavarman VII’s death, the empire began to decline, partly due to internal strife and external pressures from neighboring kingdoms.
There was also a return to Hinduism under some kings, though Theravada Buddhism, introduced from Sri Lanka, gradually became more influential among the common people.
By the 14th century, Theravada Buddhism had largely replaced the Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism of the previous rulers. The spread of Theravada Buddhism was largely a grass roots movement with it being adopted by commoners more than the elites.
There are generally considered to be three schools of Buddhism. The first is Mahayana or Eastern Buddhism, which is the predominant school in China, Korea, and Japan.
The second is Northern Buddhism or Tibetian Buddhism, which is predominant in Tibet.
The third is Theravada Buddhism, or Southern Buddhism, which developed in Sri Lanka.
Without getting too far into the doctrinal issues between the schools, significant cultural and even architectural differences exist.
The decline of the Khmer Empire has been debated amongst historians for years, and there have been multiple theories put forward as to why the empire fell into decline.
The most popular reason for the decline is obviously religion. The fact that the shift to Theravada Buddhism coincided with the decline in the empire would imply that one probably had to do with the other. The change in religion may have diminished the role of the king as a divine figure, and as a result the central government’s ability to control the vast empire weakened.
Another theory is that there was a rise in the sea trade. With Southeast Asia situated between China and India along sea routes, the importance of controlling the interior of Southeast Asia became less important.
Another theory holds that the climate changed beginning in the 13th century. This lowered agricultural productivity, which weakened the Empire.
One reason there is much debate about the decline of the empire is the lack of documentation from the period.
What we do know is that in the 15th century, the Khmer began warring with people to the west from what is today Thailand.
In 1431, after prolonged warfare and internal instability, the Ayutthaya Kingdom sacked Angkor. The Khmer capital was abandoned, and the center of power shifted southward, near Phnom Penh.
The Khmer state continued to exist, but only as a shadow of its former glory.
As such, the 1431 fall of Angkor is usually marked as the end of the empire.
The Khmer Empire is still relevant today because it stands alongside the other great empires in history in terms of its sophistication and development.
The Khmer had a highly elaborate social structure with a system of courts, religious institutions, and social classes.
Its advanced hydraulic engineering allowed for the development of a productive agricultural sector and the taming of the wet and dry seasons that dominated the environment of the Mekong River near Angkor.
Its accomplishments in art and architecture are among the greatest of any pre-modern civilization.
Moreover, the legacy of the Khmer Empire can still be seen and felt in Southeast Asia today.
Theravada Buddhism is still the dominant religion in the region, and it shapes the culture of Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Burma. You can see it everywhere, from small shrines on street corners to large temples in major cities to the seats reserved for monks at airports and bus stations.
The ruins of Angkor are considered one of the greatest architectural monuments in the world and it draws millions of visitors every year.
The people of Cambodia still consider their ethnicity to be Khmer, and it is also the name of their language. The revolutionary communist group that took control in the 1970s called themselves the Khmer Rouge or the Red Khmer.
In short, the Khmer Empire was a remarkable civilization that dominated much of Southeast Asia for over 600 years. Its legacy, particularly through its religious monuments and cultural contributions, continues to influence the region to this day.